Designing Instructional Components

The organization that I plan to conduct project on is a public university in California.

The instructional component of a planned program is multifaceted, with full integration of content into each of those facets. In this assignment, you are to develop the instructional component of your proposed program, beginning with program goals. Your goals are to follow Caffarella and Daffron's format in Sample Program Goals and Educational Program Objectives, Exhibit 7.1 in Chapter 7. You are then to develop learning objectives/outcomes for your proposed program, following the format in Translating Program Goals and Objectives in Learning Objectives, Exhibit 8.1 in Chapter 8, and keeping in mind the adage “as evidence by what” in your preparation as shown above.

The number pages in your paper will vary with the number of outcomes and the detail provided. Follow the examples provided in the exhibits.

For each learning objective/outcome you require, you are to develop an instructional plan, clearly identifying the following elements:

• Format Selected.

• Session Title.

• Time Required.

• Description of Learning Activity.

• Learning Objective(s)/Outcomes.

• Instructional Techniques (with justification).

• Draft Assessment Plan.

• Resources to be Used.

• Facilities Needed.

Finally, develop a learning transfer plan that clearly aligns with program goals and learning objectives/outcomes. Follow the format in Framework for Transfer of Learning: People, Timing, and Strategies, Exhibit 9.2 in Chapter 9.

161

Chapter 7

Developing Program Goals and Objectives

DEVELOPING PROGRAM GOALS and objectives is a component of the planning process that must be thought through very carefully, as the goals and objectives help shape the major foci of the program for organizations, participants, and other stakeholders, such as funders. However, there are programs where this component may not be needed, such as a series of open-ended discussion groups or other educational activities that are social in nature. We fi rst discuss how program goals are defi ned and constructed and follow with an overview of program objectives, how program objec- tives are constructed, and how planners judge the clarity of these objec- tives. In the fi nal section of the chapter, we explore ways that program objectives are used to determine whether a program is internally consistent or doable.

Defi ning and Constructing Program Goals

The terms program goals and program objectives are sometimes used inter- changeably in practice: what one organization calls a goal, another may call an objective. In addition, others use the term program objectives , when in fact they are referring to learning objectives , which are a part of the instruc- tional design process (see Chapter Eight ). Program goals refer to broad statements of purpose or intent for education and training programs, whereas program objectives identify the specifi c outcomes of the program.

More specifi cally, program goals answer the questions: Why are we doing this? (Milano & Ullius, 1998); What do we hope will change in the future? (Gboku & Lekoko, 2007); and Why is the program worth doing? (Rothwell & Cookson, 1997). For programs sponsored by organizations whose primary function is the education and training of adults (such as family literacy programs), the major program goals are usually a part of the organizational mission statement (see Chapter Five ). This statement

Caffarella, Rosemary S., et al. Planning Programs for Adult Learners : A Practical Guide, John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/capella/detail.action?docID=1119447. Created from capella on 2024-01-24 02:57:11.

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162 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

is also true for organizations that have centralized units charged with the education and training function, but in these organizations, the goals are usually a part of the unit ’s mission statement. No matter where the state- ment is located, program goals “provide an ideal future, but also should be realistic” (Gkoku & Lekoko, 2007, p. 89); this is a fi ne line that can make goals diffi cult to clarify and construct, and you may need to go through a number of drafts.

This process of setting goals for programs can be messy and time- consuming, related to the levels and number of stakeholders involved; the complexity of the problems, issues, and needs being addressed; and the sit- uation at the time. For example, in the time that it took for a set of program goals to be in the “close to fi nal” draft stage, leadership may have changed, funding sources may have dried up or changed priorities, and the political landscape may be different. Despite all of these possible changing contex- tual conditions, if in fact the program goals are agreed to by a majority of the stakeholders, it is time to move the program forward, with the under- standing in most cases that some components of the program planning process, including the program goals, can and do change as the program is being developed.

As part of their Contingency-Based Program Planning (CBPP) model, Rothwell and Cookson (1997) provide three alternative ways to approach the task of constructing program goals: directive, collaborative, and non- directive. The fi rst is directive in nature because program planners “do not seek very much [if any] input from stakeholders about the purposes of [the program]” (p. 153). Some if not many of you may be wonder- ing aloud—but doesn ’t this contradict what we have been saying earlier about the importance of stakeholders, including the potential participants, in the planning process? In most situations, yes, but in a few cases there are issues and needs that must be addressed, no matter whether the recipi- ents are even interested or want to learn more about the chosen topic areas (see Chapter Six ). For example, education and training programs related to hospital security are required by many countries to become or remain accredited, and requirements for these programs are set by the accrediting associations. In this type of situation a directive approach makes the most sense.

In other cases, being directive in constructing program goals may not be the best or the most productive way to bring about change through the process of education. In such cases, which are often mandated from the top, the recipients and other stakeholders in the process may respond in a number of different ways—from actively challenging the programs to

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Developing Program Goals and Objectives 163

attending and seemingly making those changes a part of lives while qui- etly just going back to the ways things have been done before, even though they appear on the surface to have accepted the changes in practices. 1

The collaborative approach is the one most often addressed in this volume. Working in conjunction with stakeholders is the hallmark of this approach, although the degree of collaboration depends on the people with whom planners work and the situation in which planners fi nd them- selves (Gboku & Lekoko, 2007; Rothwell & Cookson, 1997). In some cases all stakeholders play a major role in all phases of the goal-setting process, but in others they may have only minor roles or serve in an advisory capac- ity. For example, Gboku and Lekoko (2007), writing about developing pro- grams for adult learners in Africa, observe that key stakeholders must be involved at all levels of the process. “At the national and sub-national lev- els, goal-setting might be the focus of early programme development and sessions involving representatives of the different groups who will imple- ment, manage and support the programme at that level, together with the prospective learners” (p. 90). The central government policies related to the issues and problems to be addressed are especially important at this level of stakeholder involvement. “At local level, a community ’s goals for an adult education programme might be formulated through formal meet- ings and informal discussions with the perspective learners, community leaders, and with local government offi cials and NGOs” (p. 90). It is at this level that negotiation and mediation are often needed to bring the different parties to some agreement as to the major issues and needs upon which the goals are eventually formulated. This stage of the process often brings up the problem of power dynamics among the various groups and orga- nizations, which brings to the forefront the skills of program planners to negotiate among the various stakeholder groups (Cervero & Wilson, 2006) (also see Chapter Four ). Although most program planning situations do not require government involvement in setting goals and objectives for the program, this practice is the norm in most African countries, as few pro- grams will be effective on a long-term basis if the national and local gov- ernments are not involved in this part of the process.

In the facilitative approach for constructing program goals, rather than taking on a leadership role “program planners [facilitate] decision mak- ing among participants and/or other stakeholders but make [few, if any] decisions themselves about [the] program… goals” (Rothwell & Cookson, 1997, p. 154). These decisions are instead made by program recipients or stakeholders through, for example, teams or committees put together by local community members. This type of goal setting is typical of what

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Developing Program Goals and Objectives 165

navigate, especially in voluntary action groups. On the one hand, planners want to be helpful to the groups they are working with in assisting them to frame the direction they want to go. However, their professional judgment sometimes leads them to feel a need to step in and become more directive to ensure that the process does not become so unwieldy that very little related to the task at hand will actually be accomplished. In other words, program planners using this approach must remember that they are work- ing with a “grassroots” effort, which means that the leadership for estab- lishing the program goals and tasks lies with the local community group.

Defi ning Program Objectives

Program objectives provide clear statements of the specifi c results to be achieved through education and training programs in alignment with the program goals. Program planners may choose to develop these objectives separately or work on them simultaneously. In addition to giving a clear statement of the specifi c direction of a program, these objectives also serve as the foundation for instructional plans (see Chapter Eight ), concrete guidelines for developing transfer of learning plans (see Chapter Nine ), and benchmarks against which programs are evaluated (see Chapter Ten ). Developing these objectives requires program developers “to think through [with the appropriate stakeholders] what is to be taught or done by participants, the resources required to achieve programme objectives, and the end product expected” (Gboku & Lekoko, 2007, p. 94).

There are two types of program objectives: educational and operational (Knowles, 1980). The educational program objectives refl ect what participants are expected to learn as a result of attending a specifi c education or training program. This learning results in changes in individual participants, groups of learners, organizational practices and procedures, or in communities or segments of society. Program objectives that focus on change in individ- ual participants are often translated into learning objectives (see Chapter Eight ). Samples of program goals for different kinds of education programs for adults are displayed in Exhibit 7.1 ; here, these goals are matched with program objectives so the linkages between them can be seen.

The operational program objectives are not always directly linked to the program objective. However, in some situations they are, in terms of enabling participants to meet the program goals and objectives. This type of objective outlines how program staff will improve the quality and quan- tity of program resources and other basic operational aspects of the pro- gram. People who plan programs often overlook those program objectives

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166 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

EXHIBIT 7.1

Sample Program Goals and Educational Program Objectives

Program Goals Program Objectives

Community Literacy Program

To develop a literacy program where

participants from all walks of life and

ethnic backgrounds feel welcomed,

respected, their voices heard, and their

messages responded to in a timely

manner.

To off er formal classes, individual tutoring, and advisement

in settings that are accessible to the participants, at times

when they are able to attend, and with child care services

available.

To ensure that 70% of adults who are eligible and enroll

in this program are able to read and write at a level suffi cient

to work in entry-level positions within a three-year time

period.

To assist program participants who

are currently applying for work or will

apply within six months of completing

the program to fi nd employment.

To provide on-site employment counseling to all participants

who request this service. To integrate into the formal

instructional materials learning objectives that pertain to

skills needed by job applicants (for example, fi lling out job

applications, reading want ads).

To set up a system for participants to interview for job

openings through local employment agencies.

To make sure that at least 40% of their program

participants who apply for work either during or

six months after the program are able to fi nd

employment.

Participatory Planning in Africa

To provide rural women farmers in

Nigeria the recognition that is warranted

related to the major roles they play in

the agricultural sector.

To gain the support of tribal elders from three rural

villages in Nigeria to permit women from their village

to both plan and participate in a two-week training

program sponsored by an international nongovernmental

agency and the local government. This program focuses

on improving women ’s knowledge and skills in the

production and marketing of wheat as an alternative

crop for both family consumption and to sell in the local

markets.

To have tribal elders from these three villages identify

fi ve women from each village to be a part of the planning

team.

To guarantee these women will receive training in how to

plan and evaluate a gender-sensitive program.

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Developing Program Goals and Objectives 167

Program Goals Program Objectives

To involve rural women in the planning

of training programs geared to

their needs and the realities of their

circumstances.

To pilot test the program with fi fteen women from each

village, including members of the planning team.

To revise the training program, with the original team

who developed the pilot program, based on feedback

received from the women who attended, the instructors,

and representatives from other stakeholder groups such as

government offi cials from the region and funding agencies.

To provide open access to this program to all

women from the three villages who have not had a chance

to attend. The planning team is responsible for collecting the

evaluation data and disseminating the results to the village

elders, the women who participated in the program, and the

stakeholders. *

Grassroots Education

To respond to the needs expressed by

adults with Attention Defi cient Disorder

(ADD) who have expressed an interest

and willingness to assist others who

have this condition.

To form a group of volunteers who have expressed an

interest and willingness to plan and coordinate this initiative

in their local community.

To plan and initiate educational and support programs open

to all adults with ADD and their families and friends who live

in or near their community.

To provide participants in the program with up-to-date and

accurate information materials and strategies for locating

their own materials.

To facilitate educational programs on topics of interest to the

participants and build a network of experts who can provide

information and discussions on new developments in the

knowledge and treatment of adults with ADD.

To initiate opportunities for participants to share their

thoughts and feelings about living with ADD and the coping

strategies they use.

* Although rural women in Africa are very active participants in the agricultural sector in Africa, they are often either

not off ered participation in training programs related to improving their own skills and livelihoods or they are sadly

underrepresented.

that are directed at improving the quality of the program operations. Yet, as appropriate, if developing these kinds of objectives is included as a regular part of the process of constructing the overall objectives, the overall quality and effi ciency of programming will improve in many cases. In addition, although operational program objectives are probably more applicable to

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168 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

EXHIBIT 7.2

Program Objectives Focused on Program Operations

Program Operations Program Objectives

Adequate physical facilities To provide adequate physical facilities that would accommodate

disabled persons.

Equipment To write a grant for changing a face-to-face program to an

e-learning program that includes the computers, software, and

the course management system needed to deliver the program.

Revenues To set the registration fee for the program over costs by 10%

with the proceeds used to create a new program.

Education program To establish a training program for volunteers who could assist

program staff in planning and carrying out educational pro-

grams and activities for low-income families.

programs housed in formal education and training organizations or units, these types of objectives are also useful to those who conduct educational activities as part of their other job responsibilities. Examples of operational program objectives are given Exhibit 7.2 .

Constructing Program Objectives

Constructing program objectives, like constructing program goals, is a challenging activity. The challenges stem from three sources. First, at the heart of formulating program objectives is defi ning specifi c program out- comes. These outcomes can be elusive, especially at the beginning of the process. For example, those working in literacy programs know that one of the major objectives of these programs is that adults who lack literacy skills will be able to read and write. But what does being able to read and write mean? Does it mean reading at a specifi ed grade level, having the reading and writing skills necessary to be a productive worker or member of soci- ety, or both of these outcomes and more? Second, in the actual writing of program objectives, the parameters are not always clear.

As with program goals, program planners do not usually develop program objectives in a vacuum. It would be relatively easy to sit in the offi ce, carefully crafting program objectives, but the risk is very high for producing impractical or irrelevant projected outcomes. Instead, similar to the process of developing program goals, the other stakeholders such as program participants, work supervisors, and cooperating organization,

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Developing Program Goals and Objectives 169

should assist in developing and reviewing objectives. This involvement can be handled in a number of ways. For example, education and training staff could request that key supervisors of potential participants help draft or review program objectives for their people. They could also ask a sam- ple of potential participants to help. Questions and comments from both of these groups could be solicited on the relevance and usefulness of the objectives and on their understandability (especially concerning practical application and usefulness). In addition, if a formal education or training committee exists, this committee may serve as a review board and work to give advice and counsel in the initial writing or the redrafting of the objec- tives (see Chapter Five ).

Finally, when developing program objectives at a national or inter- national level it is less likely, as noted earlier in this chapter, that others outside the sponsoring organization(s) will be involved in drafting these objectives. If other stakeholders are involved at this level, most often an advisory group is formed to provide feedback on program objectives to the planning group of the sponsoring organization(s). These advisory groups are carefully chosen by the sponsoring organizations, and normally involve those from stakeholders groups with political clout and national or inter- national experts in the content of the program. These objectives may then be put out for public comment either through face-to-face public forums or via a web site set up for this purpose. However, for the most part, stake- holder involvement at this level is often very limited.

When writing program objectives, it is important for program plan- ners to consider how the program will be evaluated (see Chapter Ten ). One of the major aspects of the plan that evaluators examine is whether there is a match between the program objectives and program outcomes, and if not, why not. This process can be diffi cult as there are differences among program planners in their beliefs about whether program objec- tives should be stated in measurable terms (a common belief), or whether these objectives can also encompass outcomes that cannot be expressed in “seeable” performance (Chan, 2010; Gboku & Lekoko, 2007; Mehrens & Lehmann, 1991; Morell, 2010; Wholey, Hatry, & Newcomer, 2010). In addi- tion, some program planners take the position that education and training programs have some outcomes that are measurable and some that are not. Likewise, outcomes can be either intended or unanticipated, because it is almost impossible to know beforehand all the benefi ts a program could produce. Therefore, in constructing program objectives, it is important to state both measurable and nonmeasurable objectives and to be fl exible in renegotiating and reshaping those objectives so that unanticipated but

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170 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

important achievements and outcomes of the program are highlighted. This notion of measurable and nonmeasurable and intended and unan- ticipated results is illustrated in Exhibit 7.3 with examples of specifi c pro- gram objectives.

Program objectives, whether they are learning or operational, “should be stated clearly enough to indicate to all rational minds exactly what is intended” (Houle, 1996, p. 193). Houle goes on to describe a number of properties that characterize clearly articulated program objectives; three of them are highlighted below.

• Program objectives are essentially rational and thus impose a logical pattern on the educational program. This rationality does not mean that the objec- tives do or even could describe all the possible outcomes of education and training programs over a specifi ed period of time. For example, in the case of large programs, program objectives that are learner and operational in scope are usually not comprehensive enough to speak to all aspects of the program. Nor do these objectives address the com- monly accepted but often unstated motives, aspirations, and objectives of those persons who plan or participate in education and training activities.

• Good program objectives are practical and concrete. As practical guides for action, program objectives neither describe things as they ideally should be nor focus on esoteric problems that have no basis in real- ity. “The ultimate test of an objective is not validity but achievability” (Houle, 1996, p. 183).

• Good program objectives are discriminating. By stating one course of action, another is ruled out. For example, if resources for the next cal- endar year are targeted for new personnel, other staff members for the most part are excluded from education and training activities. Whether this course of action is appropriate depends on a number of factors. Was an education or training program for new staff viewed as a priority need? Does senior management support this decision? Do the supervisors of the new staff believe the programs being planned meet the needs of their people?

In addition, good program objectives, when the expectations of the sponsoring organization(s) are that program outcomes can be demon- strated, are written in measurable terms.

More specifi cally, people who plan programs ask themselves the fol- lowing questions to help them judge the clarity of the program objectives they have developed for both those that focus on participant learning

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Developing Program Goals and Objectives 171

EXHIBIT 7.3

Examples of Unintended and Intended Measurable and Nonmeasurable Program Objectives

Type of Objective

Intended Achievements (stated

before the program is carried out)

Unanticipated

Achievements (stated

during the program or after

it has been carried out)

Program Objectives

Focused on

Participant

Outcomes

M e

a su

ra b

le a

ch ie

v e

m e

n t

To provide an intensive educa-

tional program for new directors of

Peace Corps for countries all over

the world. These directors would

be able to demonstrate through

problems and situations presented

to them that they are competent to:

(1) address a range of diffi cult issues

with which they would likely need

to confront; (2) refer to any potential

diplomatic matters they encoun-

tered to the embassy staff ; and

(3) manage personnel problems

with individuals and groups of staff .

About 25% of the par-

ticipants developed a strong

network committed to shar-

ing what was working for

them, problems they were

encountering, and ways they

had addressed those prob-

lems. They also agreed to

generally support each other

through a secure Internet

system.

N o

n m

e a

su ra

b le

a ch

ie v

e m

e n

To assist new trainers to feel they

have more control over their daily

work lives.

A number of the trainers

remarked on the program

evaluation that they felt more

confi dent in their ability to

carry out their jobs.

Program Objectives

Focused on

Operational

Outcomes

M e

a su

ra b

le a

ch ie

v e

m e

n t

To generate funds through grant

writing and program fees for a

statewide HIV/AIDS awareness

organization to develop a system

for online instruction that could also

be used for collaborative meetings

with partner organizations.

In addition to the original

funders, one additional orga-

nization that had provided

grants for other activities at

the center was so impressed

with a demonstration of

how the new system is being

used that it pledged enough

funding to develop a second

model classroom.

N o

n m

e a

su ra

b le

a ch

ie v

e m

e n

Through training programs for vol-

unteers, funded with revenue-

producing programs, these vol-

unteers would feel they were an

important part of the staff .

A number of the volunteers

let the coordinator of their

program know that this train-

ing program inspired them

to recruit other volunteers to

work with the organization.

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172 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

and program operations, as applicable (Gboku & Lekoko, 2007; Milano & Ullius, 1998; Sork & Caffarella, 1989):

1. Is there a clear relationship between the objectives and the ideas, prob- lems, and needs that have been identifi ed as priority areas?

2. Do the objectives refl ect the prior knowledge, experiences, and abilities of potential participants?

3. Do the objectives focus on a crucial part of the program?

4. Are the objectives practical and achievable?

5. Are the objectives attainable in the time frame proposed?

6. Do the objectives clearly communicate the proposed outcomes or accomplishments?

7. Are the objectives meaningful and will all interested parties under- stand them?

8. Are the objectives supposed to be measurable; and if so, are they?

9. Are the objectives congruent with each other?

Program objectives, again like program goals, may need to be negotiated and reworked at some point (or points) in the life of a program. Practically speaking, these changes in the program objectives mean program planners are willing to eliminate, revise, or add program objectives as the situation warrants (see Chapter Four ). This updating of program objectives should be done in concert with key stakeholders and in a thoughtful manner. Negotiating these changes as a normal part of the process can come as a surprise, especially to novice planners and stakeholders who are unfamil- iar with this type of approach to planning. Therefore, in some situations, those proposing the changes need to be well prepared to explain why these changes are needed, and be willing to compromise on what they are propos- ing. However, staff should not modify or eliminate certain objectives just because they do not want to provide the necessary programs; rather, staff have to have a strong rationale for revising or adding to initially agreed- upon program objectives.

Using Objectives as Checkpoints

Clearly stated program objectives, both learning and operational, provide one of the major checks for ensuring that a program has internal consistency and is doable. As noted earlier, use of program objectives as checkpoints does not mean these objectives are necessarily constructed prior to working

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176 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

EXERCISE 7.1

Developing Program Goals 1. Briefl y describe a program planning situation you are currently planning or were involved in planning.

2. For those of you who are currently planning a program, choose one primary approach from the

following three for how you would manage the process of writing each goal statement and why you

would use that approach (the directive approach, the collaborative approach, or the nondirective

approach). In addition, indicate why you would choose this particular approach. For those who wrote

about a program that has already been planned, describe which approach or approaches you used in

developing these goals, and why you made this choice.

3. For the program that you are currently developing, construct three clearly written program goals. For

a program that you were involved in planning, examine and critique the goals that were developed or,

if goals were not a part of the plan, construct goals that could have been used.

Goal Statement One:

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Developing Program Goals and Objectives 177

Goal Statement Two:

Goal Statement Three:

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178 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

EXERCISE 7.2

Constructing Program Objectives Construct three clearly written program objectives for each of the program goals you developed in Exercise

7.1. For those programs you have already planned move to Exhibit 7.3 to evaluate those objectives. As

appropriate, include objectives focused on participant learning and program operations.

Goal Statement One Program Objectives

Goal Statement Two Program Objectives

Goal Statement Three Program Objectives

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Developing Program Goals and Objectives 179

EXERCISE 7.3

Evaluating the Program Objectives Using the questions provided below, ask one or two of your colleagues to help you critique the program

objectives you developed (or had previously developed) for one of the goals in Exercise 7.2.

Questions To Ask Objective Objective Objective

Is there a clear rela-

tionship between the

objective and the goal

identifi ed?

Does the objective focus

on a crucial part of the

program?

Is the objective practical

and achievable?

Is the objective obtain-

able in the time frame

you have proposed?

Does the objective

clearly communicate the

proposed outcomes or

accomplishments?

Is the objective meaning-

ful and can it be under-

stood by all interested

parties?

Is the objective supposed

to be measurable, and if

so, is it?

Does the objective

refl ect the prior knowl-

edge, experiences, and

abilities of the potential

participants?

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180 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

EXERCISE 7.4

Revising the Program Objectives Using the feedback from Exercise 7.3, rewrite program objectives that need revising in the space provided,

and provide a rationale for why you made that change. (Please note that you may need or want to do this

critiquing and revising process a number of times with the same or diff erent colleagues.)

Original Program Objective Revised Objective Rationale for Revising

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Chapter 8

Designing Instruction

DESIGNING INSTRUCTION INVOLVES planning the interaction between learners and instructors, or between learners. Those responsible for design- ing instruction may be paid staff, volunteers, or persons internal or external to an organization or community. The outcome of the instructional design process is an instructional plan, which serves as a guide for the present- ers or facilitators of the learning activity being constructed (e.g., a class, a workshop, a community event, or an online format). 1 Depending on the nature of the program, more than one instructional plan may be needed. For a half-day workshop, usually only one plan is needed, whereas for a major conference, depending on the type of presentations, multiple plans are often put together by the persons who will be presenting.

Those who provide the instruction most often develop the various components that make up the instructional plan. Even if these individuals receive assistance in putting the plan together, the responsibility for the fi nal product is theirs. There are times, though, when designing instruc- tion needs to be a team effort, especially when the education and train- ing activities are very complex and comprehensive (Smith & Ragan, 2005). The composition of these design teams varies, depending on the purpose, format, content, and scope of the education and training activity. Types of staff who may be needed on these teams include instructors, partici- pants, instructional designers, subject-matter experts, technology special- ists, managers of planning teams or projects, and persons representing the various stakeholder groups such as the program sponsors (Morrison, Ross, Kalman, & Kemp, 2011; Smith & Ragan, 2005). For example, the design team for a combination of a three-day intensive workshop delivered online for educators who want to incorporate online instruction into their teach- ing could be composed of a program planner, two instructors, a technol- ogy specialist, two participants, and a member of one of the sponsoring organizations.

In this chapter we fi rst describe the learning objectives and how they are constructed, and then present suggestions for selecting and organizing the content to be taught. We next review choosing instructional techniques;

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182 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

included in this section is a description of the key factors instructors take into consideration when choosing these techniques. One of these key fac- tors is the focus of the learning objectives (e.g., acquiring knowledge, devel- oping psychomotor skills, strengthening problem-solving and -fi nding capabilities), and we provide examples of specifi c techniques by learning outcomes, including the fast-growing number of technology-based tech- niques and tools. Next, we explore instructional assessment including why these types of assessment are important and the techniques that are used in assessing learning outcomes. The chapter concludes with examples of two instructional plans and a description of ways instructors make the plans work for them and their learners.

Developing Learning Objectives

Learning objectives, also known as performance objectives and learning outcomes, describe what participants will learn as a result of attending an education or training session (Bowman, 2009; Diamond, 2008; Dick, Carey, & Carey, 2009; Mager, 1990; Morrison et al., 2011; Smith & Ragan, 2005). These learning objectives are rooted in the context of the program objectives, so that there is continuity between the two sets of objectives. The major differ- ence between learning and program objectives is that learning objectives center on individual participants and sessions within a larger program, while program objectives are focused on the education or training program as a whole. Illustrations of program goals and objectives, which are drawn from Chapter Seven , and how they are translated into learning objectives, are shown in Exhibit 8.1 .

Categories of Learning Objectives Learning objectives are selected carefully, because they set the tone and direction for what participants are expected to do and learn during the instructional activity. Therefore, in preparing learning objectives, the devel- oper must have in mind a clear picture of the proposed learning outcomes for the instructional unit. There are fi ve major categories of learning outcomes: acquiring new knowledge; enhancing cognitive skills; devel- oping psychomotor skills; strengthening problem-solving and problem- fi nding capabilities; and changing feelings, beliefs, or values (Bloom, 1956; Rothwell & Cookson, 1997; Smith & Ragan, 2005). 2

Learning objectives are useful for four major reasons (Smith & Ragan, 2005). They provide a focus and consistency in the overall design of instruc- tion, guidelines for choosing course content and instructional strategies,

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Designing Instruction 183

EXHIBIT 8.1

Translating Program Goals and Objectives into Learning Objectives

Program Goals and Objectives Learning Objectives

Grassroots Education

Program Goal :

The goal of the program, to be developed by an ad hoc group

of people who have been aff ected by Attention Defi cient

Disorder (ADD), is to initiate educational and support activities

for adults with ADD and their spouses or partners.

Program Objectives:

To provide participants in the program with up-to-date and

accurate information materials and strategies for locating their

own materials.

To give opportunities for participants to share their thoughts and

feelings about living with ADD and the coping strategies they use.

To facilitate educational programs on topics of interest to the

participants and build a network of experts who can provide

information and discussions on new developments in the

knowledge and treatment of adults with ADD.

The participants will:

Identify new sources of accurate

information about ADD (for example, from

books, web sites, people).

Discuss with experts current knowledge

about ADD and how to use this knowledge

in their everyday lives.

Express and explore their feelings with

group members about living with ADD.

Share strategies of how they deal with ADD

as part of their life as adults.

Provide assistance to group members

who ask for help in addressing specifi c life

issues.

Participatory Planning in Africa

Program Goal

The goal of this program is to train village men and women,

who will take on the role of paraprofessionals to be eff ective

members of a planning and implementation team in the

introduction of a new crop, that of rice production, into tribal

villages in their local areas.

Program Objectives

To engage men and women identifi ed by tribal leaders in

three rural villages to work as paraprofessionals with local

government agricultural specialists in planning a gender-

sensitive program for men and women on the planting and

harvesting of rice as an alternative crop.

To have these paraprofessionals be part of the pilot testing the

program that is developed on rice production and marketing

in three selected villages.

To revise the training program, with the original team of

paraprofessionals and government offi cials who developed

the pilot program, based on feedback received from the

farmers who attended, the instructors, and representatives

from other stakeholder groups such as government offi cials

from the region and funding agencies.

The paraprofessionals will:

Explain why the planting and harvesting of

rice as an alternative crop for both family

consumption and to sell in local markets

is important to improving the lives of rural

farmers.

Describe and demonstrate the process for

planting and harvesting rice, and how to

market this rice in their local areas.

Demonstrate the skills and knowledge

needed to work in collaboration with

agricultural and training specialists

in planning a program for men and

women from their villages related to rice

production and marketing.

Exhibit the knowledge and skills needed

to assist farmers in the planting and

harvesting of rice in the villages where the

program will be pilot-tested.

Translate what they have learned during

the pilot tests to make improvements in

the program.

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184 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

a basis for evaluating what participants have learned, and directions for learners to help them organize their own learning. As with program objec- tives, learning objectives should be “stated clearly enough to indicate to all rational minds exactly what is intended” (Houle, 1996, p. 193). Ways to ensure that you are communicating objectives clearly and correctly include: avoid unfamiliar words and language that is vague; be concise; seek simplicity; convey clearly to learners what they will be learning, and how this learning will be, in many situations, applied (Dick et al., 2009; Rothwell & Kazanas, 2008).

Developing Learning Objectives In developing learning objectives, people sometimes have diffi culty com- ing up with a variety of action words that fi t each category of learning outcomes. To assist in this task, a sampling of such words is always help- ful to have (Morrison et al., 2011; Rothwell & Cookson, 1997; Rothwell & Kazanas, 2008; Vella, 2000). 3

Although the three essential elements of all learning objectives are a statement of who (the learner), how (the action verb), and what (the con- tent), other authors have suggested additional components that may be useful in clarifying further what learners are able to know or do. More specifi cally, Dick et al. (2009), Mager (1990), and Rothwell and Kazanas (2008) have described two more elements of learning objectives: conditions under which the learning is to be demonstrated and the standards or criteria for acceptable performance. Sample wording describing the given conditions are:

• Given a problem of the following type . . .

• Given a list of . . .

• When provided with a specifi c set of tools . . .

• Without the use of any reference materials . . .

• By checking a fl owchart next to the property equipment . . .

• When a client is angry or upset . . .

Sample wording describing the criteria for acceptable performance are:

• . . . with 98 percent accuracy.

• . . . getting 16 out of 20 correct.

• . . . in a 20-minute time period.

• . . . by brief responses (fewer than fi ve sentences).

• . . . with no mistakes.

• . . . with all irate clients.

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Designing Instruction 185

The latter two elements are appropriate only for learning objectives that are measurable through quantitative means. There are certain kinds of learning outcomes, as stressed in Chapter Eleven , that do not lend themselves to precise behavioral or performance criteria (Knowles, 1980; Caffarella, 2002; Morrison et al., 2011). Using specifi c behavior or perfor- mance criteria is especially not applicable in most situations when creativ- ity, confi dence, sensitivity, feelings, beliefs, and values are the focus of the learning activity. For example, changes in deep-seated values and attitudes about race, gender, and cultural differences are learning outcomes that are extremely diffi cult, if not impossible, to express in any meaningful way in behavioral terms. However, as noted earlier, the learning objectives must be written and it is key that they have meaning for the participants and the instructors, are understandable, and provide a clear direction for the education or training activity.

Selecting and Organizing Content

Selecting the content—that is, choosing what will be learned during a learning activity—is a challenge because instructors can rarely include all the material they would like to teach. These limitations stem from the amount of time, types of delivery systems, backgrounds and experi- ences of the participants, materials available, and instructor capabilities (Alessi & Trollip, 2001; Wlodkowski, 2008).

The starting point for selecting content is the learning objectives. Milano and Ullius (1998) recommend “playing” with the proposed con- tent until key topics and points are arrived at for each learning objective. What does happen as designers categorize and rethink what might be cov- ered is that some of the learning objectives may need to be revised or even dropped. Some instructors, to arrive at what they believe to be important and essential to learn, construct visual tools, such as a concept or content map, to assist them in this process, while others prefer either just talking it through or using a combination of methods. For example, once instruc- tors have made a draft of the content they believe will be the most useful for learners to know before they fi nalize that material, they ask the follow- ing questions:

• What content is essential for learners to know and does this content address one or more of the learning objectives?

• What is the content that learners should know, which supplements the essential material?

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186 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

• What is the content that might be interesting and relevant to the essen- tial materials, but only addressed as time allows?

• What is the content that learners really do not need to know (that is, it may be useful but does not pertain to the learning objectives)?

What instructors often fi nd in asking these questions is what they thought was crucial material really is only supportive in nature, or does not address any of the learning objectives, and that some of the content they believed would fi t in well does not make any sense to include, no matter how interesting it is. In addition, as Tracey (1992) cautions, instructors must avoid leaving out important points and ideas, overemphasizing topics that do not merit extensive attention, and repeating the material presented.

The organization (or sequence) in which the content is delivered is also important. There is no one way to organize content. For example, should the content fl ow from general to specifi c or vice versa? Should it emanate from abstract to concrete or concrete to abstract? The ordering of the con- tent depends on the participants’ knowledge and experience, the nature of the content itself, the required level of achievement, and the teaching and learning styles of those involved. 4

There are three common pitfalls that designers stumble into when orga- nizing instruction: they plan too much material for the time allowed; they want instructors to impart more than learners are motivated to absorb; and they discount the context in which the learning is to be applied (Milano & Ullius, 1998; Wlodkowski, 2008). Those designing instruction need to con- stantly remind themselves that planning instruction, like program plan- ning, is an interactive process—objectives, organization contexts, and evaluation mechanisms may change during the planning and implementa- tion phases.

Choosing Instructional Techniques How does an instructor decide which instructional technique(s) might best fi t a specifi c situation? In fact there is no one best way of assisting people to learn. 5 Rather, there are eleven major factors that instructors take into con- sideration when choosing instructional techniques (Conti & Kolody, 2004; Cranton, 2000; Ginsberg & Wlodkowski, 2009; Joosten, 2012; Smith & Ragan, 2005; Vella, 2000). These factors include: learning techniques, instructors, learners, context, social media, transfer of learning, content, technique char- acteristics, variety, logistical constraints, and time. 6

Of these eleven factors, the fi rst four—the focus of the learning objec- tives, the capability of the instructor to use the chosen technique, the

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Designing Instruction 187

experiences and backgrounds of the learners, and the learning context— are key in formulating the basic plan for the instructional portion of the program. The remaining seven factors take shape once these four key factors are in place. The four key factors are discussed in the following subsections.

Learning Objectives

The focus of the learning objectives, the fi rst factor, includes acquiring knowledge, enhancing cognitive skills, developing psychomotor skills, strengthening problem-solving and -fi nding capabilities, and changing feelings or values. 7 It is important to match the instructional techniques with the objectives because when there are mismatches the outcome that instructors had planned usually will not happen. For example, one mistake often seen in practice is when instructors use methods such as lectures and group discussions when they are supposed to be doing skill development.

Although this categorization of techniques offers a good representation of how each instructional technique fi ts with a type of learning outcome, in reality the categories of techniques are not that clear-cut. One technique may be appropriate for two or three categories of learning outcomes. For example, as discussed earlier, many of the online techniques can be used across most of the categories, while different forms of group discus- sion could be used to impart knowledge, teach cognitive skills, enhance problem-solving abilities, or examine feelings, beliefs, and values.

More in-depth descriptions of these and other instructional techniques can be found in Brookfi eld and Preskill (2005); Bonk and Zhang (2011); Cain, Cummings, and Stanchfi eld (2005); Conrad and Donaldson (2011, 2012); Galbraith (2004); Garrison and Vaughan (2008); Hoggan et al., (2009); Joosten, 2012; Lawson (2009); Palloff and Pratt, (2011); Silberman (2005, 2010); Silberman and Auerbach (2006); Smith and Ragan (2005); and Taylor, Marienau, and Fiddler (2000).

Capability of Instructors

The second factor in choosing instructional techniques is the capability of instructors. Does the instructor have the knowledge, skill, and confi – dence to handle a particular technique? Does he or she feel comfortable using it? If not, the instructor ’s discomfort may be distracting. For exam- ple, instructors who employ new techniques that do not seem to work may continually apologize to the participants. Or they may not be adept at using online learning tools and can make the learning experience very frustrating for participants. And even worse, instructors may embarrass

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188 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

or even blame learners for being unable to use the techniques well, when in fact it is the instructor ’s problem. There are ways that instructors who choose to employ new or unfamiliar techniques can try them out. For example, instructors could request that participants in face-to-face sessions join them in experimenting with new techniques and ask for feedback on whether they worked, and if they did, how effective they were. This feed- back could come in the form of written responses to open-ended questions or through group discussions where both the instructor and the partici- pants could discuss what transpired in terms of the “positives” and “areas for improvement.” For those using online tools several practice sessions may be necessary with backup material in case the techniques do not work. In the best-case scenario instructors will have technicians standing by to assist participants.

Capable instructors of adults also are aware of and use well the prin- ciple of active learner participation in choosing techniques (Bowman, 2009; Hoggan et al., 2009; Knowles, 1980; Silberman & Auerbach, 2006; Vella, 2000). As Silberman and Auerbach (2006) observe:

I have modifi ed and expanded the wisdom of Confucius into what I call the Active Learning Credo:

• When I only hear , I forget.

• When I hear and see , I remember a little.

• When I hear and see , and ask questions and discuss with someone else, I begin to understand.

• When I hear, see, question, discuss, and do , I acquire knowledge and skill.

• When I teach someone, I master what I have learned. (p. 2)

Learner Characteristics

The third factor, diversity of learners, is primarily based in cultural differ- ences, such as gender, race, ethnicity, religion, social class, and language, which are found in most learning situations with adults (Davis, 2009; Ginsberg & Wlodkowski, 2009; Reagan, 2005b; Wlodkowski, 2008). In addi- tion, learners, especially from non-Western and Indigenous populations (as discussed in Chapter Three ), have different ways of knowing and learning (Reagan, 2005; Merriam & Associates, 2007). In instructing adults, thought- ful instructors have always been challenged by the differences learners bring with them to learning activities and what these differences mean for choos- ing instructional techniques. Traditionally, instructors have recognized that

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Designing Instruction 189

adults bring rich but often divergent experiences to learning activities, are immersed in various life roles, have preferred ways of learning, and want practical solutions to problems and issues (Cranton, 2000; Knowles, 1980; Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007; Smith & Ragan, 2005).

As Smith and Ragan (2005) have observed:

A common error resulting from failure to analyze the characteristics of an audience is assuming that all learners are alike. An even more common error is assuming that the learners are like designers. This means that we tend to explain things the way we will understand them, use examples that are familiar to us, and use instructional techniques that work well for us. (p. 58)

It is incumbent on instructors to fi rst acknowledge their own biases, both the obvious and the hidden, as a starting point for addressing issues of diversity when teaching adults (Davis, 2009: Ginsberg & Wlodkowski, 2009; Guy, 1999a, 1999b: Hayes, Flannery, & Associates, 2000). For example, it is obvious when the authors fi rst walk into most teaching situations that they are White females. By their dress, learners also may easily judge that they are at least middle class and, through their language, that they are well educated and primary English speakers. When their reputation as scholars is known, they also carry into the learning situation an air of authority and power, which for some learners is daunting and intimidating. The less obvious factors (although readily apparent for some in the room) are their beliefs regarding people of color; religious, class, and gender differences; sexual orientation; learning disabilities; and varied ways of knowing and learning.

Ginsberg and Wlodkowski (2009), Guy (1999a), and Wlodowski (2008) also challenge instructors of adults to go beyond just acknowledging their biases in teaching. Their view is that instructors must be willing to change their views about learners, the way they teach, and even what content they choose to include. This task of making teaching situations more inclu- sive is not easy, either for instructors or participants. More specifi cally, Wlodkowski (2008) has observed:

When we are teaching, exclusion is usually an indirect act, an omission of opportunity or of someone ’s voice. We ’re usually not mean-spirited but, more likely, unaware that a perspective is missing, that a biased myth has been perpetuated, or that we aren ’t covering topics of concern to certain adults…

“People who regularly cross borders, that is those who work with other cultural groups either within their own countries or in international settings

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190 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

are often faced with uncertainty in both face-to-face and online learning situ- ations, especially when they have had limited or no prior experience with the cultural milieu” (Ginsberg & Wlodowski, 2009, p.125). “Therefore, teach- ing in a culturally responsive way may require considerable transformation [whether in their own country of origin or in international settings]. Being skilled, prepared, and willing to deal with some of the tensions and diffi cul- ties that accompany this [work] is an essential part of the experience” (p. 331).

For example, instructors may have people who speak a number of different languages, are not accustomed to active learning practices, and believe it is disrespectful to engage in a critical dialogue with their instruc- tors or, at times, even with other participants.

Instructors who take into account the many differences among learners adopt three key norms for practice:

1. The multiplicity of ways people learn and respond to learning situa- tions is a given.

2. Instructors have the responsibility for designing instruction so that these differences are acknowledged and used to enhance the what, when, where, and how of learning situations.

3. Proceed with care and be willing to be fl exible in where, how, and when you provide the instruction.

Helpful resources that provide examples of learning techniques that acknowledge differences, and ways to create inclusive learning environ- ments for adults, include: Brookfi eld (2006); Brookfi eld and Preskill (2005); Ginsberg and Wlodkowski (2009); Guy (1999b); Pratt, Kelly, and Wong (1999); and Wlodkowski (2008).

Learning Context

The learning context, the fourth key factor that infl uences the choice of learning techniques, is the setting where the learning takes place (Smith & Ragan, 2005; Vella, 2000). Adults learn in a variety of settings, from for- mal class and training rooms, to their homes and workplaces, to the great outdoors. Some learning situations are more conducive to using certain techniques than others. For example, solving problems of practice in the settings where participants actually work calls for using “real-life” case studies, observations, and problem-based learning. Other places, such as multiple learning sites in a number of countries, are better suited for a mobile phone or online instruction, providing the technology is available.

In turn, in some learning contexts certain kinds of learning tech- niques work well, while in other settings the same techniques would be

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192 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

2008; Sugrue & Clark, 2000). These guidelines recommend that instructors select resources that:

• Fit the experiences, interests, and abilities of the learners

• Are culturally suitable for the participants

• Instructors are capable of using

• Explain and illustrate well what is being taught (e.g., knowledge ver- sus problem-solving capabilities)

• Focus attention on the essence of the content

• Effectively take advantage of the context in which the learning is taking place

• Are adaptable to the local context

• Can successfully be used in the environment where the learning activ- ity is held

• Are useful to them in applying what they learned

• Are affordable

• Will be available at the time they are needed

Heather violated at least two, if not more, of these basic guidelines— choosing resources that did not fi t the learners’ experiences and abili- ties, and were not useful in applying what they had learned. In addition, she could have also asked more questions about the group she would be teaching.

Another important issue when using already existing resources is that “copyright permissions must be secured [for these resources]… whenever a copyright notice appears on the title page, or on a footer, of instructional [resource and] materials. It is unethical for instructors to do otherwise” (Rothwell & Kazanas, 2008, p. 263) There are numerous resources that instructors may want to use from the public and private sectors. It is impor- tant to note that instructors should assume that private-sector materials, including online sources, are copyrighted, unless otherwise stated. Public- sector documents, such as government documents and material from web sites, are often not copyrighted; but it is essential that instructors and plan- ners consult the copyright regulations for their own countries. Even if the resource material is not copyrighted it is a professional courtesy to provide the authors’ names and the sources of those resources.

A wide variety of instructional resources can be used to enhance learn- ing, such as “real resources” (e.g., people; objects and devices, comput- ers), printed materials, audio and visual materials, online sources, and

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Designing Instruction 193

interactive technologies (Conrad & Donaldson, 2012; Cranton, 2000; Gboku & Lakoko, 2007; Joosten, 2012; Lawson, 2009; Mitchell, 1998; Rothwell & Kazanas, 2008; Taylor, 2009). 8 There are also other types of resources that are still used widely in resource-poor settings. Examples of these resources, which are often viewed as outdated in many settings, include overhead projectors, slide projectors, transparencies, audiotapes, storyboards, radios, fi lm strips, and slides (Gboku & Lekoko, 2007).

Conducting Instructional Assessments

Instructional assessment or evaluation is done for fi ve major reasons (Diamond, 2008; Lawson, 2009; McMillan, 2010; Morrison et al., 2011; Wiggins, 1998; Wlodkowski, 2008):

• To assess participants’ background, experiences, and readiness for learning when they enter an activity or program

• To improve the instructional process and materials

• To assist participants to be more effective learners

• To ascertain whether what the participants have learned has actu- ally produced the desired outcomes that are refl ected in the learning objectives

• To provide data for the overall program evaluation (see Chapter Eleven )

Each of these purposes for doing instructional assessment is discussed in the following sections.

Assessment at Entry Assessment done either prior to or at the start of a learning activity allows the instructors to know what the participants know and can do and how they feel about the content to be presented. This entry-level assessment activity may also be done as part of identifying program needs and ideas (see Chapter Six ) or as a part of preparing marketing plans (see Chapter Thirteen ). Evaluation methods at this stage range from asking participants to complete simple questionnaires (on who they are, what background knowledge and experiences they have related to the content, and the like) to administering comprehensive tests on prerequisite knowledge or skills (McMillan, 2010). These data can also be used, as discussed later in this section, as baseline information for assessing the results of the instructional activity and the program as a whole (see Chapter Eleven ).

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194 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

Assessment of the Instructional Processes and Resources Using instructional assessment to improve the instructional process and resources is done prior to, during (formative evaluation), and after (sum- mative evaluation) the instructional event (Davis, 2009; Dick et al., 2009; McMillan, 2010; Morrison et al., 2011; Smith & Ragan, 2005). This type of assessment is usually completed by the instructors themselves or by the participants. Instructors benefi t greatly by checking and refl ecting on the instructional process and the content before, during, and after the ses- sion is over. Especially for instructional activities that will be offered a num- ber of times, such as courses and workshops, conducting such assessments is important as it allows instructors to catch major weaknesses prior to offering the activities (Dick et al., 2010; Smith & Ragan, 2005). Depending on the time and resources available, instructors could:

• Request a content expert to check whether the materials are accurate and up to date

• Ask an expert on assessment to determine whether the assessment tech- niques will provide the type of data needed to make sound judgments on whether participants have actually learned what will be presented

• Ask a couple of colleagues to review the processes they have chosen to use

• Invite members of the program advisory committee or the committee as a whole to provide feedback on whether the activity will meet the needs of potential participants

Based on this assessment, instructors then revise the processes and resources that will be used before initiating the instruction.

There are a number of ways that instructors assess the processes and resources being used both during and after the instructional activities are completed, including self-assessments, questionnaires, conversations with colleagues, and small- and large-group discussions (McMillan, 2010). For example, one way for instructors to use self-assessments is to keep an online teaching journal or log in which they jot down and refl ect on what was done well, what could have been done better, and what could be done differently. Team-teaching with a colleague also encourages instructors to refl ect on instructional activities, as long as both instructors agree that debriefi ng sessions will be a regular part of their team-teaching process (Buckley, 2000). And fi nally, informal chats that instructors have with their colleagues over coffee or lunch can also prove very helpful.

Participant assessment related to resources and process is also very use- ful, and in some situations even mandated (e.g., at colleges and universities

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after formal courses are completed or at the end of continuing mandatory education programs to receive the credit). Having participants evaluate these areas of instruction is also benefi cial while the instructional activities are in progress, as well as after they have been completed. Davis (2009) provides a number of ways that learners can contribute to this process (e.g., schedule feedback at times appropriate to the learning activity; convene focus groups). However, having participants complete these types of assessments can have some very negative effects if instructors are not willing to make changes based on the feedback given to them (McMillan, 2010). 9 This type of assess- ment, “without the use of instructional change is not formative” (McMillan, 2007, p. 118), but rather a waste of the participants’ time. There are a number of questions that instructors can ask participants as part of assessing the pro- cesses and resources used in instructional activities (McMillan, 2010). 10

Assessment of the Learning Outcomes Instructors know that the assessment of learning outcomes is vital, but they primarily think of this type of assessment as happening at the end of the instructional activities, and participants are used to fi lling out these assessments prior to leaving the activity. However there is a second type of learning outcomes assessment that looks at whether learners are able to transfer the new knowledge, meaning whether they can apply what they have learned back in the workplace, as volunteers, or in their personal lives (Daffron & North, 2011; Morrison et al., 2011; Regan & Smith, 2005) (see Chapter Nine ). 11

Another term also used for assessing learning transfer is “confi rma- tive evaluation,” meaning that repeated assessments of outcomes should be completed for some time, with the end goal of maintaining over time what has been learned (Morrison et al., 2011). The problem of why assess- ment of learning transfer is often not being used is twofold. Instructors are frequently not asked to be a part of developing evaluation strategies for learning transfer, or not involved in the process of determining whether these learning activities have any impact at all. And program planners also often do not even think that instructors should have a role in this process, unless they are offering refresher sessions, or involved with the partici- pants in other ways during the transfer process.

The starting point for assessing the learning outcomes of instructional activities, whether at the end of the instructional activities or during the transfer phase, is the learning objectives. The assessment techniques cho- sen need to match the focus of those objectives—acquiring knowledge, enhancing cognitive skills, developing psychomotor skills, strengthening

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196 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

problem-solving and -fi nding capabilities, or changing attitudes, beliefs, val- ues, or feelings. Useful resources that describe instructional techniques that are used most often include Guskey (2000); Lawson (2009); McMillan (2010); Morrison, et al. (2011); Smith and Regan (2005), and Wiggins (2008). 12 Most of the assessment techniques that address these fi ve purposes are now con- structed and administered online as well as through more traditional ways (Conrad & Donaldson, 2011, 2012; Dick et al., 2009; Palloff & Pratt, 2011). 13

Although categorizing assessment techniques is helpful, instructors know that depending on how the techniques are designed, they may fi t into more than one category of learning outcomes, similar to the categoriza- tion of instructional techniques. For example, tests and refl ective journals, depending on how they are constructed, are used to assess knowledge, cognitive skills, problem-solving and fact-fi nding capabilities, and changes in attitudes, beliefs, values, or feelings, or all of the above. In addition, another instruction assessment tool—portfolios—have become even more popular in recent years. Depending on the purpose of why portfolios are constructed, they can address all of the different types of learning outcomes (McMillan, 2010; Michelson, Mandell, & Contributors, 2004: Morrison et al., 2011; Wiggins, 1998; Wlodkowski, 2008). Portfolios provide direct evi- dence of learning through a collection of carefully selected materials (e.g., written papers, memos, artistic materials, audio and video clips, online materials, published articles, honors and awards, work-related products), and are either presented in a notebook or online. Accompanying this evi- dence are descriptive and refl ective entries that allow instructors and fellow participants to gain a clear understanding of what each artifact represents. Portfolios are powerful tools for both individual and group learning.

McMillan (2001, 2010), Wiggins (1998), and Wlodkowski, (2008) have outlined key ideas to consider when choosing assessment techniques. Samples of questions that instructors should ask themselves are:

• Are they of high quality? That is, “are they technically sound and provide results that demonstrate and improve” participant learning (McMillan, 2001, p. 52)?

• Are they appropriate for the targeted learning outcomes (e.g., acquir- ing knowledge, changing attitudes, beliefs, values, or feelings)?

• Are they practical and effi cient to use?

• Are they fair and can they account for individual and cultural differences?

• Do they appeal to their professional judgment and intuition about its usefulness?

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Designing Instruction 197

• Will they be seen as credible and user-friendly by the learners?

• Are they going to turn into a self-infl icted chore for instructors and the participants?

• Have instructors planned enough time to use them in an effective manner?

• Have instructors tried out the techniques themselves?

In managing the assessment process, instructors fi rst need to understand that many adults are very anxious about any type of assessment related to what they have learned, especially when it makes a difference in such areas as whether they will get a job or receive a promotion. Educators and trainers have to respond to this anxiety with concern and respect for the participants’ feelings. Second, instructors must provide clear and complete instructions about how the assessment will be conducted, including specifying the format and length and what the assessment requires participants to do. Third, assess- ment should take place in a comfortable environment. Fourth, all resources to complete the assessment process should be readily available and in working order (e.g., laptops, technical equipment for video- and audiotaping).

Assessment to Assist Learning The next reason to do instructional assessments is to assist learning (Brookfi eld, 1992; McMillan, 2010; Wlodkowski, 2008; and Wiggins, 1998). As Wlodkowski (2008) notes:

Feedback is information that learners receive about the quality of their work. Knowledge about the learning process and its results, comments about emerging skills, notes on [specifi c activities or products], and graphic records are forms of feedback that instructors…use. Feedback appears to enhance the motivation of learners because learners are able to evaluate their progress, locate their performance within a framework of understanding… self-assess correct their errors effi ciently, self-adjust, and receive encouragement from their instructors and peers. (pp. 314–315, italics in the original)

Brookfi eld (1992), McMillan (2010), and Wiggins (1998) go on to describe nine indicators that help instructors judge whether their assessment pro- cesses are useful and signifi cant to learners engaging in the learning process, including whether they are clear, specifi c, constructive, timely, and useful. 14 Of the nine indicators, the indicators related to being affi rming and sug- gesting changes that can be made are the most challenging and helpful to

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198 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

both instructors and participants. In addition, “learner ’s readiness to receive feedback is also important. If people are resistant to feedback, they are not likely to learn or self-adjust. In such cases, it may be advisable to hold off on the feedback until a personal conference can be arranged or until learn- ers are more comfortable with the learning situation” (Wlodkowski, 2008, p. 321, italics in the original).

Assessment to Provide Data for the Overall Program Evaluation The fi nal rationale for doing instructional assessments is to provide data for the overall program evaluation (see Chapter Ten ). Yes, there are differences in the focus of instructional and program assessment; that is, a “program evaluation focuses on larger organization questions and social contexts of the program (macro level), [while] evaluation of learning focuses on what and how learners learn and how educators help or hinder the process of learning (micro level)” (Deshler, 1998, pp. 305–306). Despite these different foci, data from learning or instructional assessments are valuable sources of informa- tion to use in making judgments about the program as a whole. (Dick et al., 2009; Rothwell & Cookson, 1997). Examples of data that are useful include:

• Instructional assessment data from learning activities collected right after each session can be used to determine whether the instructional outcomes were an indicator that the program objectives for the overall program were met, and whether all of the program arrangements (such as facilities, online access, meeting rooms) were satisfactory.

• Transfer of learning assessment data, which were a part of the instruc- tional process, can also be used as indicators of whether the program objectives were achieved.

• Instructional assessment data gathered both during and after a series of workshops on a major social issue facing a community (e.g., racial ten- sions, increases in assaults on women) can be used to make judgments on whether this material was helpful and in developing a workable plan to address the issue that was the major goal for this program.

Unfortunately, instructional assessment data are not used as often as they should be in program evaluations, although there is an obvious link between whether the instructional activities provided the intended results and the overall value and worth of the total program. For example, at pro- fessional conferences, participants are usually asked at the end of each ses- sion to provide an assessment of that session. Common questions include: Were the session objectives clear and did the presenter successfully address

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Designing Instruction 199

each objective? Were the instructional techniques and materials helpful? Did the session contribute to your knowledge or skill level? Was the cof- fee hot and the room cool? Was the facility comfortable? What happens to these data after they are collected is often mysterious. Sometimes these data go directly to the presenters and are defi nitely not used in evaluating the overall conference. At other times, planning teams use these data primarily to decide whether a person should present at future conferences, but this reason is often not shared beyond the planning team. In still other cases, the conference evaluators integrate these data into their program evaluation reports, but even then it is not always clear how this integration has been done. But most often, conferees and presenters are not sure what has hap- pened to the data collected at each individual session. One way to make sure these data are used is to build into the program evaluation plan how instructional assessment data are being collected and utilized in terms of assessing the overall program.

Preparing Instructional Plans

One of the major outcomes of the instruction design process is developing the instructional plans. These plans serve as a guide for instructors or facil- itators of the learning activities being constructed (Milano & Ullius, 1998; Mitchell, 1998; Van Kavelaar, 1998). Instructors fi nd that well-designed plans enable them to judge whether they have a clear set of learning objec- tives, instructional techniques and resources that complement the focus of those objectives, and an assessment plan that tells them if the learners have met those objectives. In addition, learning plans estimate a realistic time frame for each of the learning activities included in the plan, and the type of facilities, set-ups, and tools needed to successfully execute the plans (e.g., available breakout rooms, round tables with comfortable chairs for the participants, computers, and projectors). Having well-designed learn- ing plans helps instructors stay within the boundaries of what they have planned, but also allows instructors to know when they have wandered too far off the topic so they can get back on track.

There is no set form for an instructional plan; however, major compo- nents of the activity that should be covered are outlined below: 15

• Session title

• Date and time frame

• Name and titles of presenter(s)

• Brief description of the learning activity

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200 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

• Learning objectives

• Instructional techniques

• Assessment plan

• Estimated time for each major part of the learning activity or activities

• Instructor and participant resources

• Facilities needed

The instructional plan should be used as a guide for how the instruc- tor and the participants spend their time in the session, not as a document that dictates precisely what each person must do and when. There must be room for fl exibility and change in both the content and the learning pro- cess, depending on the learners and what happens in the learning situation.

Making the Instructional Plan Work Whether they are leaders of individual sessions or keynote speakers, how instructors put their instructional plans into action can either foster or block a positive climate for learning. Instructors enhance learning by sharing their content mastery, being helpful facilitators, using instructional techniques and assessment strategies appropriately and well, and estab- lishing good rapport with the participants. All these actions assume that instructors have knowledge about the participants and are well prepared for the instructional event.

Motivating participants up front is a very important part of making the instructional plan work (Ginsberg & Wlodkowski, 2009; Wlodkowski, 2008). One major way to capture participants’ interest is to get them person- ally involved with the material. Starting with a question-and-answer period or breaking the group into dyads or small work teams can set the stage for learner engagement with the content. In very large groups, presenters can use human-interest stories or prepare participants by highlighting two or three new and exciting ideas at the outset. However participation and interest are fostered, the method should be well thought-out and applica- ble to the program content. There is nothing worse than starting a session in an unorganized and vague manner. Impressions of whether presenters are good or bad are made in the fi rst four minutes and rarely change after.

A second way to motivate the group is by encouraging instructors to be enthusiastic and energetic. Instructors who are open to questions and com- ments, use humor, and interact with the participants spark to the interest of even the most reluctant participants. In assisting the participants to learn content, instructors have to present the material in an organized fashion.

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Designing Instruction 201

A number of different instructional techniques, as described earlier in this chapter, can be used, with the emphasis placed on active learner participa- tion whenever possible and appropriate. Some helpful hints for instructors as they move through the instructional plan are listed in Exhibit 8.2 .

Useful resources that describe more fully what instructors can do to ensure a positive learning experience include: Apps (1996); Bonk and Zhang (2008); Brookfi eld and Preskill (2005); Ginsberg and Wlodkowski (2009); Palloff and Pratt (2011); Silberman (2010); Silberman and Auerbach (2006); Tisdell (1995); Vella (2000); and Wlodkowski (2008).

As appropriate, instructors assist participants in examining how the new knowledge, skills, problem-solving and problem-fi nding capabilities, beliefs, or feelings they have learned can be applicable to their lives (see Chapter Nine ). Five key transfer of learning strategies are: (1) ask learners,

EXHIBIT 8.2

Helpful Hints for Instructors

• Remove or lessen participants’ anxieties.

• Create safe and inclusive learning environments.

• Spell out clearly and up front the expectations for participants.

• Set or develop group norms (e.g., let participants know that active participation is encouraged, divergent

opinions are welcomed, and a question-and-answer period is a part of the presentation).

• Let learners know the role of the instructor is to help them learn.

• Use nondiscriminatory language that all participants can readily understand, and treat participants in an

unbiased way.

• Develop professional and caring relationships between and among learners and instructors.

• Give participants advance “organizers” (such as fi ve key points) to help them follow the ideas presented.

• Use the resources and expertise of the participants.

• Use an outline or notes rather than reading a formally prepared paper or script.

• Use active learning techniques that allow time for refl ection.

• Restate important ideas.

• Be generous with examples.

• Listen carefully to all ideas presented by the participants and respond appropriately.

• Keep a good pace, and be aware of time.

• Provide feedback and positive reinforcement to participants throughout the session.

• Recognize that emotions play an important part in the learning process.

• Be fl exible with the presentation, instructional plans, and techniques (e.g., build on the unexpected).

• Be caring and openly committed to the participants’ learning.

• Be ethical in instructional practice.

• Use humor and laughter.

• Have fun.

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Designing Instruction 203

• Select and organize the content on what participants “must learn,” which is based on the learning objectives. Content that supplements the essential material should be included only if time allows. Be cogni- zant that there is no best way to select and sequence the content.

• Choose instructional techniques (e.g., lectures, case studies, online for- mats, storytelling, games, or metaphor analysis) that match the focus of the proposed learning outcomes, that the instructor is capable of using, and that take into account the backgrounds and experiences of the learners and the learning context.

• Select instructional resources that enhance the learning effort (e.g., “real resources,” printed materials, visual aids, online resources, or interac- tive technologies).

• Choose ways to evaluate instructional assessment data related to how the instruction was delivered and the resources used.

• Select appropriate assessment techniques for assessing the learning outcomes or results of the instructional activity.

• Use instructional assessment data in formative and summative ways for the instructional aspects of the program as well as the program as a whole.

• Prepare clear and concise instructional plans as guides that can assist instructors and learners to stay focused as they move through the instructional process.

• Make the instructional process work by ensuring that instructors know their content, are competent learning facilitators, care about learners, use instructional and assessment techniques appropriately and skill- fully, and are well prepared for each instructional event.

This chapter has addressed the many elements and factors that infl u- ence the instructional design process. Addressed in the next chapter is devising transfer of learning plans that are a critical and yet, until very recently, an often overlooked component of program planning. These transfer of learning plans assist learners in applying what they have learned to their work, personal, or public lives.

Notes for Additional Online Resources

1. See Scenario 8.A: Planning Instruction for an Environmental Awareness Day.

2. See Exhibit 8.A: Sample Learning Objectives for examples of learning

objectives that address each major category of learning outcomes.

3. See Exhibit 8.B: Examples of Action Words for Learning Outcomes.

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Designing Instruction 205

EXERCISE 8.1

Developing Learning Objectives 1. Describe briefl y an educational program for which you will act as the instructor or be part of an

instructional team.

2. Develop a set of learning objectives for your part of the program using the following format. Complete

each part for each objective, as appropriate.

The Learner… Action Verb … Content

Conditions

Under Which the

Learning Is to Be

Demonstrated *

Criteria for

Acceptable

Performance *

* These two elements of the learning objective are not applicable for learning objectives that cannot be

stated in behavioral or performance terms.

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206 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

EXERCISE 8.2

Selecting Instructional Techniques 1. For the same session you described in Exercise 8.1 , develop two alternative ways the material could

be taught. Keep in mind the focus of the learning outcomes, your expertise, the backgrounds and

experiences of the learners, and the context for learning.

Alternative 1:

Alternative 2:

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Designing Instruction 207

EXERCISE 8.3

Creating an Instructional Assessment Process 1. For the same session you described in Exercises 8.1 and 8.2 , describe the major reason or reasons for

completing an instructional assessment.

2. Select and describe one or more techniques you will use to evaluate this instructional session.

Technique:

Description:

Technique:

Description:

3. Describe how you will ensure that the assessment process exhibits at least the following qualities

(see Exhibit 8.K):

Clear:

Specifi c and Constructive:

Timely:

Useful:

Ongoing and Frequent:

Accessible:

Affi rming:

Changeable:

Justifi able:

Personal and Diff erential:

Stated with Care and Concern:

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208 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

EXERCISE 8.4

Preparing Instructional Plans Using the material from Exercises 8.1 , 8.2 , and 8.3 , develop an instructional plan, using either Exhibits 8.L or

Exhibit 8.M as a guide, for a session in which you will serve as instructor.

Title:

Date and Time:

Learning

Objectives Content Heading

Key Points to

Emphasize

Instructional

Techniques

Estimated

Time

The participants

will be able to:

Assessment Plan:

Instructional resources and equipment needed:

For instructor:

For participants:

Room Arrangement needed:

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210 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

pressure is on and the refi nery has already received a few safety

citations. Hector decides to take a gamble and listen to Glen ’s

ideas. Over the next week Hector sees Glen out in the refi nery unit

talking with some of the workers and working with their super-

intendent to show them a new procedure he will be using in the

programs. Hector wonders if these discussions are what Glen was

talking about.

Six weeks after the program was presented, Hector sees all of

the OSHA lessons being used by the workers and the superinten-

dent involved in the implementation. Hector thinks back to the last

workshop he presented where the supervisor was not even pres-

ent and not too many of the workers tried out Hector ’s new ideas.

What were some of the lessons that Hector, the workers, and their

superintendent learned about successful transfer of learning from

Glen? What made the diff erence in this training compared to the

more traditional lecture and note taking that Hector had used for

ten years?

The previous chapters have provided guidance for program planners to put together educational programs using the Interactive Model. Many program planners assume that if they follow the ideas and model, the pro- gram will be planned well, the educational event will be successful, and everyone will leave for the better because of the excellent planning. These assumptions are all certainly true; however adult educators need to ask two further questions: did the learners actually learn what was intended, and will they be able to apply the new information in their personal, work, or public lives?

In this chapter we fi rst discuss how transfer of learning is defi ned, and then how the transfer of learning process is linked to other components of the Interactive Model of Program Planning. Next we explore why transfer of learning is an important component of the program planning process, and we examine models of learning transfer, with an emphasis on the Successful Transfer of Learning Model. We then review samples of key factors that are either barriers or enhancers to the transfer of learning process, followed by a section presenting a framework for planning transfer of learning, high- lighting the people involved, the timing of when to use transfer, and a num- ber of strategies to assist participants in applying what they have learned. The chapter closes with a discussion of specifi c techniques, including those for individuals and groups, followed by an exploration of the challenges that program planners face in the application process.

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Devising Transfer of Learning Plans 211

Defi ning Transfer of Learning

What does it mean to “transfer” learning? Why should program planners, like Hector in Scenario 9.1 , be concerned with the issue of transfer or appli- cation of newly acquired information and skills to the job site or other areas of adult lives? Transfer of learning is the effective application by program participants of what they learned as a result of attending an education or training program (Baldwin & Ford, 1988; Broad & Newstrom, 1992; Daffron & North, 2011; Merriam & Leahy, 2005). It is often referred to as the “so what” or “now what” phase of the learning process. What do these phrases mean, and how can what was learned be applicable to the situations of the program participants? Transfer of learning (also termed transfer of train- ing or applications process ) is not a new component of the planning process (Baldwin & Ford, 1988; Cervero, 1985; Fox, 1984); rather, it is an element of the process that is receiving increased attention as participants and spon- sors of education and training programs demand more concrete and useful results. In Merriam and Leahy ’s review (2005) of the transfer of learning research from 1990 to 2000, they report a continued need for adult educa- tors to gain a clearer understanding of how learners transfer their learning into practice. Not all educational programs for adults need to have a plan for this part of the process, however. In fact, for some programs—such as a public lecture series or a weekend retreat for spiritual renewal—having a transfer of learning plan may not be appropriate or even needed. However, for many programs, such as skill-based programs, to be successful a plan for helping participants apply what they have learned is required.

Transfer of learning has most often been thought of in behavioral terms—that is, what is to be transferred can be clearly specifi ed in terms of observable changes in knowledge, skills, and attitudes (Broad & Newstrom, 1992; Merriam & Leahy, 2005). Therefore, the assumption has been that as long as everyone knows ahead of time what is to be transferred and how this learning transfer will be accomplished, the transfer will happen with- out any additional interventions. Although this assumption is true in some situations, learning transfer is often more complex and multifaceted than just simply being clear about what learning needs to be applied and hav- ing a plan to do that (Austin, 2008; Holton, 2000; Daffron & North, 2006, 2011; Lim & Morris, 2006; Ottoson, 1995a; Yelon & Ford, 1999). As Ottoson (1995a) has so aptly observed: “Application is a complex, multidimensional process that takes more than just a good idea. It takes knowledge, skill, endurance, and artistry. Application requires multiple kinds of knowledge, including knowledge of the thing , the context, the practical, and the skill

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212 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

to put it all together” (p. 24; emphasis in the original). In addition, a num- ber of other factors have been identifi ed that affect learning transfer, such as learner characteristics, professional backgrounds, learner motivation, program design and delivery, and organizational strategies.

Viewing the transfer process from this point of view requires that pro- gram planners and others involved in the transfer process have the “skills of translation, negotiation, adaptation, and decision-making” (Ottoson, 1995a, p. 26). 1 Assisting people to make changes is the heart of what trans- fer of learning is all about—changes in themselves, other people, practices, organizations, or society. Some of these changes may be easy and even fun, like learning how to be a better gardener or skier. Other changes may be dif- fi cult and painful, such as learning to cope with a major illness or how to lay off large numbers of staff members due to budget or technological changes.

Although many education and training programs focus on individuals’ learning, often some of what has been learned cannot be applied, as noted in the previous case, unless changes are also made in the context where the changes are expected (Austin, 2008; Bennett, Lehman, & Forst, 1999; Daley, 2002; Daffron, Cowdrey, & Doran, 2007; Daffron & North, 2011). These contextual factors, such as transfer climate, cultural differences, and struc- tural issues, are especially important when what is learned is to be applied primarily in a work or other organizational setting, in a different cultural milieu, or when it depends on others having to agree to or also make those changes (see Chapter Four ). For example, a frontline customer representa- tive may want to use some alternative strategies of working with customer complaints as a result of attending a series of professional development sem- inars, but encounters a stumbling block when his departmental supervisor voices strong opposition. This supervisor claims that the new procedures will take too much time and thus will be less effi cient. A more global exam- ple would be assuming that workers are highly self-directed in their trans- fer activities in a cultural context “where they are more accustomed to being told what to do and letting someone else take both the credit and the respon- sibility” (Latimer, 1999, p. 4). These contextual factors are one of the bases, among others, upon which transfer of learning plans are grounded.

Linking Transfer of Learning Component to Other Planning Components

There are a number of linkages between the planning factors that infl u- ence the transfer of learning component and the other components of the Interactive Program Planning Model, as demonstrated by Scenario 9.2 .

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214 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

participants. In addition, as this program is government-funded,

Sheila needs to demonstrate that both the outdoor adventure

experience itself and the transfer strategies and techniques they

use to apply what has been learned actually produce the desired

outcomes. Sheila ’s next step is to have the whole program commit-

tee meet with the outdoor adventure group and hammer out the

various complexities of the program plan:

• Do the instructional and transfer plans meet the stated pro-

gram and learning objectives?

• How will the participants demonstrate to Sheila ’s organization,

the funding agency, and other stakeholders that they really

met the program outcomes with these plans?

• How will the learning context and the participants’ back-

grounds, experiences, and needs aff ect what are selected as

instructional and transfer techniques?

• How will the transfer of learning strategies and techniques fi t

into the whole picture, as these are central to the learning out-

comes being met?

Sheila knows that planning and implementing the transfer of

learning process will be challenging because as one part of the

plan changes, so will others. Transfer of learning is intricately con-

nected with many other components in the Interactive Model of

Program Planning, and thus as other components change, the

transfer of learning plan is greatly aff ected.

Although this scenario describes well the linkages among devis- ing transfer plans and selected components of the Interactive Model of Program Planning, there are not always as many factors infl uencing trans- fer of learning as in this scenario. For example, in some planning endeav- ors the transfer process is connected only to instructional plans and, more specifi cally, as one means of meeting the learning objectives. As is seen from Sheila ’s planning endeavors, the transfer of learning strategies and techniques often hold the key to whether or not program outcomes can be achieved. Therefore, planning for learning transfer is a critical part of the planning process, as is further discussed in the next section.

The Importance of Planning for Learning Transfer

There are a number of reasons why planning for the transfer of learning is so important. First, as noted, both sponsoring organizations and participants

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Devising Transfer of Learning Plans 215

are asking for outcomes that are applicable, practical, and make a differ- ence. For example, billions of dollars are spent annually for continuing professional training and education.

The American Society for Training & Development ’s (ASTD) Trend Report of 2006 estimates that organizations spend $190 billion annually on workplace learning. “When all costs, direct and indirect, are combined, the range goes even higher. Management expectations from training and education programs are high” (Daffron, Metzgen-Ohlswager, Skinner, & Saarinen, 2012, p. 613).

Estimates of transfer of learning since the 1980s have generally been low. Recently, studies show estimates still remain low at about 10 per- cent (Awoniyi, Griego, & Morgan, 2002). Much of this expensive training and continuing education is wasted because of “continued low trans- fer. [Rather], practitioners have emphasized and developed sophisti- cated delivery devices at the expense of the critical connections between the training site and the work [and other environments]” (Brinkerhoff & Montesino, 1995, p. 264). Broad and Newstrom (1992) and Broad (2005) go on to assert that for organizations to remain competitive in the global marketplace and prepare highly skilled workers, improving transfer of learning must be a high priority. Although this reported low rate of transfer of learning pertains primarily to training and continuing professional education, there is reason to suspect that a low rate may be found in other programs for adults. Second, there are many issues and concerns related to the lives of adults that can be at least partially addressed through educational programs—health care reform, violence in our communities, restructuring of public education, world peace, and environmental concerns, to name a few. What is critical about so many of these issues and concerns is that solutions were needed yester- day. Therefore, it is no longer viable or ethical for educators to leave up to chance whether people, as a result of attending education and train- ing programs, can apply what they have learned to solving these com- plex problems.

Third, many people need assistance in refl ecting changes they must make in themselves, other people, organizations, or society before what they have learned can be translated into concrete results. For example, some people are predisposed to change, whereas others need support from a variety of sources (for example, work supervisors, family mem- bers, friends) to apply what they have learned. These and other fac- tors, such as organizational climate and available funds, that enhance or block the transfer of learning process are discussed further in this chapter.

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216 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

Models of Planning for Transfer of Learning One of the earliest models for transfer of learning, by Baldwin and Ford (1988), has been the basis for many subsequent models that describe the process. In their model, Baldwin and Ford (1988) placed emphasis on the planning stage. One of their major conclusions was that if the program planning included the planner, the educator/trainer, the participants, and the managers of organizations, the program would surely be successful and the learner would transfer the new information. Both researchers con- tinued their studies of transfer of learning but, like other researchers noted earlier, were disappointed to fi nd that transfer only happened in small amounts, and concluded that an emphasis on planning was not enough to facilitate transfer. Broad and Newstrom (1992) and Broad (1997) used their own research in the fi eld of training to create examples for program planners to use to make education and training productive. At the same time Cervero (1985) suggested methods of adult learning that would help professional program planners.

Reported in a number of studies over the years were that managers were the primary group responsible for lack of transfer in organizations (Brinkerhoff & Montesino,1995; Clarke, 2002; Kirwan, 2009), and that orga- nizational environments were not conducive to making the transfer pro- cess happen (Bates & Khasawneh, 2005; Holton, Bates, Seyler, & Carvalho, 1997; Rouiller & Goldstein, 1993). Other researchers began to see that the problem was not just with each of the stakeholders mentioned here or with one setting or another, but that it was with multiple variables (Cervero, 1985; Cheetham & Chivers, 2000, 2001; Kirwan, 2009) or a link between organizational learning culture and innovation (Bates & Khasawneh, 2005). Still others discovered that the culture and climate of the particular profes- sion affected the transfer process (Daffron & North, 2006; Daffron & Davis, 2005; Daffron, Cowdrey, & Doran, 2007; Daffron, Goulet, Gray, & Viada, 2008; Daley, 2001, 2002).

Despite new knowledge about learning transfer, researchers in recent studies continue to fi nd that transfer is still not reaching the learner (Bates & Khasawneh, 2005; Cheetham & Chivers, 2000, 2001; Daffron et al., 2008; Daley, 2001). A new model for transfer of learning, the “Successful Transfer of Learning Model,” has provided a unique picture of key factors that infl u- ence the transfer process and how these factors are interrelated to ensure that transfer is effective (see Figure 9.1 ). This model is a result of an in-depth study of the transfer of learning process that involved 498 interviews of professionals from seventeen professional groups (e.g., state court judges, ESL and K–12 teachers, physicians, attorneys, and fi refi ghters), all of whom

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218 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

EXHIBIT 9.1

Description of Factors

Factors Description

Planning

Process

The program planning process includes a team or group of representatives involved

in the planning process (e.g., program planners, potential trainers or instructors,

content experts, organizational management or supervisors, and learners who plan to

participate in the program). These groups meet as often as necessary to plan specifi c

programs.

Learner

Characteristics

and Motivation

Motivation for learners comes from within. However, outside motivation, such

as directions or instruction to learn specifi c information or skills, can come from

supervisors or management and may greatly infl uence the learners’ motivation. The

learners’ self-effi cacy, self-confi dence. and desire to gain information create a mind-set

that has to be positive for transfer to take eff ect.

Design and

Delivery

Methods

Adults learn in a variety of ways and thus an array of delivery methods are prepared to

match the ways that group members learn best. In addition, adult education principles

and assumptions about how adults learn are used to design the program.

Learning

Context

An eff ective context for learning is used to engage the group in the learning process.

Program planners, designers, and trainers consider the specifi c groups of learners that

will be attending the programs and their personal contexts for learning. Planners also

think about the preferred learning style for the groups with whom they are working.

Immediate

Application

Immediate application of the new information given in a program is very important

for the transfer of learning process to take place. The amount of time for “immediate”

application can vary according to the situation of learners. However, if new information

or skills are not used within 60–90 days, it probably will not be applied or transferred in

the learners’ settings.

Workplace

Environment

When learners return to their jobs or other life roles, many factors will come into play to

prevent the transfer of learning (see Eliminating Barriers). One solution is to plan for the

transfer process before attending the program and have a plan for how to implement on

the job or in other situations immediately. It is helpful to have supportive supervisors,

management, peers, and others in ensuring that the learning transfer will be successful.

Eliminating

Barriers

Barriers of time constraints, lack of applicability, personal challenges, workplace issues,

and other life issues are realities that stop transfer to practice. There are also policies in

place that prohibit transfer—supervisors and other people in learners’ lives who are too

busy or disinterested to hear about the new information and skills acquired, and the

learners’ need to “catch up” with their daily activities while being away at a program.

Barriers to transfer come from a lack of suffi cient planning; great ideas but no solutions

for implementation; poorly designed training; disinterest on the part of learners,

management, or other important people in the learners’ lives; and a lack of follow-up by

program planners, presenters, management, or others involved in the program planning

process.

Adapted from Successful Transfer of Learning, Daff ron & North (2011) and Daff ron, S., Metzgen-Ohlswager, I., Skinner, S., &

Saarinen, L. (2012). Acquiring knowledge, skills, and abilities across a lifetime by transferring to one ’s own practice. In Aspin,

D., Chapman, J., Evans, K, and Bagnall, R. (Eds), Second International Handbook of Lifelong Learning, Vol. I & II, pp. 613 – 625.

London: Springer.

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Devising Transfer of Learning Plans 219

Recent events such as tough economic times, cuts in budgets for educa- tion and training, and a need to be accountable for education and training have led to discussions about return on investment (ROI) and a whole team effort to overcome barriers to ROI. Where possible, anticipating and elimi- nating the barriers to learning transfer in the beginning of the planning process is more important than ever for consideration by all stakeholders (Daffron & North, 2011). In addition, it is also important for stakeholders to take into account actions that can enhance the transfer process throughout the program presentation itself.

Barriers and Enhancers to Learning Transfer

In thinking through the many factors that are discussed about why peo- ple do or do not apply what they have learned, it is useful to categorize these ideas into a clear and manageable number of key infl uencing factors (Daffron & North, 2011, Hall & Hord, 2011; Holton, 2000; Holton & Baldwin, 2003; Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2005; Kirwan, 2009; Ottoson, 1997; Yamnill & McLean, 2001). These key factors include: participants; design and exe- cution; content; changes required to apply learning; organizational con- tent; and community and societal forces. These factors were chosen from a larger group, as they illustrate program features and characteristics that frequently serve as barriers or enhancers to transfer of learning. 2 Which outcome is experienced—successful transfer of learning or no change in practice—depends on the unique context and needs of each program.

Rarely does any one of these factors affect a program in isolation. Rather, it is the interaction among a number of the factors that makes a difference in whether learners can apply what they have learned out- side the formal learning situation (Daffron & North, 2011; Hall & Hord, 2011; Holton & Baldwin, 2003; Kirwan, 2009; Ottoson, 1995b; Leberman, McDonald, & Doyle, 2006; Phillips & Broad, 1997). Nevertheless, not all the major factors that infl uence learning transfer come into play for every education and training program. 3 Therefore, the more complex the pro- gram ’s scope and goals, the larger the number of people affected, and the greater the magnitude of the changes; the less control over organizational and societal forces, the more diffi cult it is to successfully complete the transfer of learning process.

A Framework for Planning Learning Transfer

In planning for the transfer of learning three key elements are addressed: when the transfer strategies are employed, the variety of strategies used to help in

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220 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

applying what has been learned, and the key people involved (Baldwin & Ford, 1988; Broad, 2000, 2005; Holton & Baldwin, 2003; Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2005; Kirwan, 2009; Silberman, 2006; Yamnill & McLean, 2001).

In terms of timing, transfer strategies are used before the program begins, while the program is in progress, and after the program is com- pleted. Transfer strategies employed after the program is completed are usually the most diffi cult for program planners to infl uence, for a number of reasons, including a potential mismatch between the content of the pro- gram and what the learners need to know and do; lack of support from coworkers, peers, or family and friends; resistance by learners to change; or specifi cs of the settings where these changes need to happen. Although they are the most diffi cult to achieve, transfer strategies used after the pro- gram is completed are often the most effective. Daffron and North (2011) recommend that follow-up strategies be planned with the participants and appropriate organizational personnel before the program is presented, which makes it is easier to apply what has been learned after the program.

The second element that is considered in planning for learning trans- fer is to determine what strategies and techniques are the most useful in assisting learners to apply what they have learned to their personal, work, and other roles they play as adults. Samples of these strategies and tech- niques include: involving key people in the planning process, being aware of how contextual and cultural differences infl uence applying what has been learned, and using specifi c techniques that learners prefer. To allow learners and others to be a part of this selection process, planning staff, including instructors, participants, supervisors, or other stakeholders need to be informed about learning strategies and techniques. Providing this information to learners and other stakeholders permits them to make informed choices about which of these strategies and techniques are most appropriate and likely to help learners apply what has been learned in their own settings. If working with a professional group, program planners fi nd each professional group has their own best way of learning and that this “learning context” can be ascertained by talking with the learners and their organizational sponsors before putting the strategies and techniques together (Broad, 1997; Daffron & North, 2011; Daley, 2001).

Key people—the fi nal element to be addressed—are those who need to be involved so that transfer of learning actually happens. Program planners themselves have a number of roles and functions, such as taking into con- sideration the learners, instructors and facilitators, and other stakeholders in preparing transfer plans. The other key players to include in the plan- ning of learning transfer may be any of the following: instructors or train- ers; representatives of sponsoring organizations including supervisors and

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Devising Transfer of Learning Plans 221

managers; and when addressing personal issues, members of the commu- nity or family and friends. For example, in work situations, senior manag- ers may be critical players; in community action programs, city council members, other community leaders, and “grassroots” constituents may need to be included; and in personal situations, a close friend, partner, or professional or peer counselor may be important to the process.

Exhibit 9.2 shows examples of specifi c activities these players take to enhance the transfer process before, during, and after education and train- ing programs.

It is essential in developing a framework for the transfer of learning process that all parties involved be aware of the techniques that are useful for learners in applying what they have learned during the education and training program.

Transfer of Learning Techniques

Program planners have a repertoire of specifi c techniques that are used to facilitate learning transfer. These techniques are grouped into three catego- ries: techniques for individual learners, group techniques, and techniques that can be used either by individuals or in groups. Although a few of these techniques involve direct instructional activities (for example, refresher sessions, online tutorials or sessions), the majority are designed to be used within the context in which the learning transfer is taking place. 4

More in-depth descriptions of these and other techniques that are used in learning transfer can be found in Baldwin, Ford, and Naquin (2000); Biech (2005); Bonk and Zhang (2008); Holton and Baldwin (2003); Garrison and Vaughan (2008); Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2007); Kirwan (2009); Palloff and Pratt (2011); Silberman (2006); and Ukens (2001). In employ- ing these techniques, careful thought should be given to matching trans- fer techniques to the preferences and capabilities of the learners, resource availability (e.g., facilitator skills, time, technology, and money), the nature of what is to be transferred, and the context in which the transfer is to hap- pen. For example, peer coaching and support groups may be very effective for people who are self-motivated and like to work with others, but may not work for people who need a supervisor to intervene before they will change the way they behave or practice.

Challenges Program Planners Face in Organizational Settings

“There is no question that transfer of learning is a formidable challenge to organizations” (Holton, Baldwin, & Naquin, 2000, p. 1) and to learners,

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EXHIBIT 9.2

Framework for Transfer of Learning: People, Timing, and Strategies

Program Planners Instructors and Facilitators Learners Other Key Players

Before

Identify clearly what is to be

transferred: knowledge, skills,

attitudes, and beliefs.

Ascertain the contextual aspects

of where the learning is to be

applied (e.g., learner and sponsor

expectations, organizational

climate, political environment,

cultural diff erences between and

among learners, planners, and

program sponsors).

Set the guidelines for what

constitutes successful transfer of

learning, and make provisions for

a negotiation process for changes

in what determines this success.

Obtain a clear picture of what

learning is to be transferred as a

result of the activities for which

they are responsible.

Ask specifi c questions of

program planners or learners

about the contextual aspects

of where the learning is to be

applied.

Ask learners to select projects

or other activities to complete

that encompass what learning

is expected to be transferred

(e.g., request that learners think

about who or what in their

environments would help them

successfully complete these

projects or activities).

Clarify how the expectations for

what they are learning is to be to

applied into their life situations

(e.g., work role, volunteer work,

personal issues).

Select specifi c “things” they

believe they can change related

to the expectations for learning

transfer.

Discuss with key people who

could assist them with how what

they are learning is to be applied,

and how this learning should

or might aff ect their current

situations.

Provide clear information on what information

and skills are to be applied by serving on

planning committees, responding surveys, and

individual discussions with planners.

Arrange for incentives for program participants

for positive changes they make related to the

objectives of the program (e.g., recognition

luncheons, pay increases or bonuses, and

celebrations).

Discuss with potential participants what they

believe the barriers and enhancers might be to

ensure a successful transfer process, and work

through with them alternative ways the barriers

could be addressed and how those positive

forces for learning transfer might be enriched.

Ensure, for those groups and organizations that

are assisting in funding the program, that there

are adequate monies included for learning

transfer.

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Program Planners Instructors and Facilitators Learners Other Key Players

After

Initiate and support people

involved in the transfer process

to help ensure that the outcomes

that are expected can be

achieved.

Develop diff erent transfer

techniques that emerge from the

needs of the learners, instructors

involved in follow-up activities, or

the sponsors of the program.

Negotiate and change, as needed,

what the outcomes of the transfer

of learning process should be

with all interested parties.

Provide follow-up assistance

through a variety of techniques

(e.g., coaching, follow-up

sessions, refresher courses,

mentoring).

Facilitate the process of initiating

these diff erent application

techniques and provide support

for these eff orts.

Provide feedback to program

planners, learners, and other

key players on what the

participants have learned that

can realistically be transferred

based on their knowledge of the

participants and the situations

in which they will apply this

learning.

Implement their application

plans and be willing to change

those plans. Use the transfer

resources and seek additional

support when needed.

Initiate diff erent transfer

techniques that facilitate learning

transfer within their particular

context.

Provide feedback to program

planners, instructors, and other

key players on what learning can

realistically be applied based

on their own experiences in the

transfer process and their specifi c

situations.

Encourage participants to use a variety of

transfer of learning techniques that will assist

them in the applications process (e.g., mentoring,

job aides, transfer teams, support groups,

attending follow-up sessions, networking, and

using online resources).

Become actively involved in the transfer of

learning process with individuals or groups

of participants. This involvement could take

a number of forms (e.g., assisting in carrying

through action plans, coaching, mentoring,

helping in fi nding needed resources, letting

them know that it is OK to make mistakes as they

go through the transfer process).

Negotiate and change, as needed, what the

outcomes of the transfer of learning process

should be with all interested parties (e.g.,

program planners, learners, other stakeholders).

Change policies or practices to embrace the

changes gained from the educational experience.

Set up networks on the Web to engage the

learners with others who were also learners or

those who were unable to participate but would

like to learn more about the experience.

EXHIBIT 9.2 (Continued)

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Devising Transfer of Learning Plans 225

planning staff, instructors, and other stakeholders who are responsible for ensuring transfer happens. In planning for the transfer of learning as part of the design and execution of education and training programs, pro- gram planners take into account the previously described six factors that infl uence the transfer of learning (program participants, program content, changes required to apply learning, organizational context, and commu- nity and societal forces). One useful tool for improving the learning trans- fer process is the Learning Transfer Systems Inventory (LTSI) (Holton, 2000, 2003; Holton, Bates, & Ruona, 2000; Velada, Caetano, Bates, & Holton, 2009). The LTSI is an 89-item instrument used to measure the factors infl u- encing learning transfer of the learner and within an organization. Holton and Bates (2002) created this diagnostic instrument so that program plan- ners “can access potential factor problems, investigate known transfer problems, target interventions designed to enhance transfer and incor- porate evaluation of transfer as part of regular employee assessments” (Holton, 2000, p. 8). When measuring the learning transfer climate, Bates and Khasawneh (2005) found a different measurement was needed, and created a “training-in-general” measurement of the task support element, individual cognitive states, and measurement of performance coaching (p. 516). They called the three measurements performance self-effi cacy (PSE), transfer effort-performance expectations (TEPE), and performance-out- come expectations (POE) (p. 516).

Broad (2005) acknowledges the increased attention stakeholders and organizational decision makers have on measuring outcomes, in par- ticular, Return on Investment (ROI). Broad fi nds fi ve stages of measure- ment of transfer of learning or improved performance. She begins with the Human Performance Technology (HPT) process, or “The knowledge of human performance technology (HTP) and abilities to identify and ana- lyze performance problems and opportunities and to design, implement, and evaluate interventions to resolve them” (p. 53); this stage 1 sets up the intervention and measurement in the organization before the training begins. In stage 2, the results of HPT are identifi ed and signifi cant gaps identifi ed. Stages 3 and 4 take the gaps and examine actual performance, and Stage 5 uses specifi c metrics to measure each desired performance and results (p. 113). Phillips and Stone (2002) use examples of the fi ve stages with large organizational performance measurement.

Another helpful mechanism for responding to the challenges of the learning transfer process is the Stages of Concerns (SOC) model proposed by Hall and Hord (2011). As people go through a change process, which is, as noted earlier, the heart of learning transfer, “there is a developmental

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226 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

pattern to how [people ’s] feelings and perceptions evolve as the change process unfolds” (Hall & Hord, 2011, p. 57). Within their model, Hall and Hord (2011) have identifi ed and confi rmed seven specifi c categories of con- cerns that people move through as they confront change; these seven catego- ries are further organized into three levels: self, task, and impact concerns. Most people go from self concerns (e.g., “How will using this new idea affect me?”) to task concerns (e.g., “I seem to be spending all of my time getting materials ready”) to impact concerns (e.g., “I am concerned about relating what I am doing with what my coworkers are doing”) (Hall & Hord, 2011, p. 61).

There are three major techniques for assessing the levels of concern for people involved in the change process: one-legged interviews, open-ended concerns statements, and SOC questionnaires. These techniques are fully described in Chapter Four of Hall and Hord ’s book Implementing Change: Patterns, Principles and Potholes. What is useful to learners as they journey through the transfer process is knowing which stage(s) they are in so that they can use choose appropriate transfer techniques, in concert with pro- gram planners and other stakeholders. Learners in the self-concerns cat- egory may benefi t more from techniques that allow them to further explore the impact of implementing a new practice or making a life change (for example networking, support groups, and refl ective practice). Those in the task-concerns stage look more to techniques that give them hands-on assis- tance, such as job aids and follow-up training sessions. And fi nally, learners who are in the impact-concerns arena usually seek techniques that permit them to work with others (e.g., coaching, mentoring, transfer teams, and online social networks).

Implementing measures for transfer of learning is complicated and there are many details to be handled and many people involved in the pro- cess. For too long, program planners have believed they did not have a role in the transfer process once the programs were over. In addition, in some cases planners have viewed themselves as having little or no control over the transfer process, and thus have ignored this aspect of the program plan- ning. As one of the shifts of emphasis related to program planning is on evidence-based planning, more planners are paying attention to the trans- fer process because they are expected to document the specifi c changes that have resulted from the programs they put together (Calley, 2011). Program planners have also become more skilled in negotiating changes that need to be made related to barriers that block learning transfer. They have requested that instructors incorporate more active learning methods, including tech- niques that give participants a chance to address the changes they need to

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Devising Transfer of Learning Plans 229

EXERCISE 9.1

Identifying Elements That Enhance or Inhibit Transfer of Learning 1. Describe briefl y a program for which you planned or need to plan for the transfer of learning.

2. Using the following chart, fi rst list specifi c things (related to one or more of the six factors from

Figure 9.A that did or can enhance or inhibit the learning transfer; see web site). Next, indicate what

span of decision-making control you had or have for each enhancer or inhibitor you listed. Finally, for

those items for which you have indicated only some or little or no infl uence, list who did or could assist

you in the transfer process.

Factor

Things That

Enhanced or

Inhibited

Span of Decision-

Making Control

People Who Did

or Can Assist in

Transfer

Program Participants

Program Design and

Execution

Program Content

Changes Required to Apply

Learning

Organizational Context

Community and Societal

Forces

3. Discuss with your planning group or some colleagues your responses and ask them to provide

feedback on the choices you made and to share other strategies they might suggest.

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230 Planning Programs for Adult Learners

EXERCISE 9.2

Choosing Strategies and Techniques to Use in Transfer of Learning 1. Using the same program that you described in Exercise 9.1 describe three or four transfer strategies

that you did use or could use for each group listed in the chart below (refer to Exhibit 9.1 ).

People Involved

Strategy for Before

Program

Strategy for During

Program

Strategy for After

Program

Program Planners

Instructors or

Facilitators

Learners

Work Supervisors

Other Stakeholders

(specify each of those

stakeholders)

2. For each of the strategies that you listed do one of the following:

2a. For the previous program you planned, indicate whether this strategy worked or did not work

and why.

2b. For the program you are currently planning, explain why you chose this strategy.

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Devising Transfer of Learning Plans 231

3. Using Exhibit 9.A outline in the following chart what transfer techniques were or should have been

incorporated in a previous program (or will be incorporated into a current program you are planning).

Provide a justifi cation for why each technique was or could be useful in enhancing the applications

process of a current program you are planning.

Technique Reason for Using

4. Review these materials with your planning group or colleagues and discuss whether they agree or

disagree with your choices and why.

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Designing Instructional Components

Designing Instructional Components

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